This course contains distressing content.

Australia's First Nations people lived here for more than 65,000 years before Europeans arrived en masse in 1788. At that time, there were between 750,000 and 1.2 million people living in over 500 different nations. They spoke more than 250 languages, with 800 or so variations called dialects. About 100 more languages were spoken by older people. Life was culturally and artistically rich. First Nations people hunted, gathered, and grew  food. They made shelter and clothing and lived by laws and customs that were interwoven with their spiritual connection to the land. The next video provides a brief introduction to Australian First Nations cultures:

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Recording history (5 coins)
Indigenous Australian cultures use oral history, which is the process of passing stories from one generation to the next in order to remember the past and remind people about important values and rules governing society. First Nations stories are also represented in a range of other media including song, dance, and visual art. Visual representations can be found in caves and on rocks across Australia. How do you record history? What do you do when you want to remember something? Share your thoughts on the 'Recording history forum'.

Aboriginal cultures
The next video was produced by Nungalinya College in Darwin, with participants coming from the Tiwi Islands, Elcho Island, the Torres Strait Islands, and an Aboriginal-owned and operated cattle station called The Bulman. Indigenous cultures differ substantially across Australia, and the way of life in the video relates particularly to people living near the sea.

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Cultural differences (5 coins)
Answer the following questions on the 'Cultural differences forum':

1. The video above mentions that it's important for Aboriginal children to learn their traditional culture first, and then to learn about Western culture. Why might this be?
2. At the start of the video, a young boy catches his first sting-ray, and his community celebrate this as a milestone in growing  up. How does this differ from the ways that other cultures in Australia celebrate growing up?

The Dreaming
The Dreaming is a framework for understanding the world that explains its origins and history, and structures social life. It's sometimes referred to as 'The Dreamtime', although that may cause people to think it only refers to a particular time in the past. Indigenous Australian languages have their own words for it, including 'tjurkurrpa' (Pitjantjatjara people of north-western South Australia), 'wongar' (Indigenous people of north-east Arnhem Land), and 'altjeringa' (Arrente people of Central Australia).

Social roles
Men are traditionally responsible for hunting in many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups. This includes the need to make weapons, from Boomerangs to fishing  spears. Some First Nations people used these weapons to successfully resist European attacks, even though the latter had guns. This video provides more information about the role of men:

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Women in Indigenous cultures are traditionally tasked with caring for and educating children and young people. They are also tasked with gathering food, including edible plants, roots, grubs, fruits, and honey. In some cultures, they also hunt.

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Gender roles (5 coins)
As you can see in the videos above, men and women have different roles in different First Nations. Think about your own community - do men and women  have different roles? If so, how does the community decide which roles will be played by each gender? Why do you think so many communities across the world structure society by gender?  Do you think it's useful to divide society by gender, or not? Share your thoughts on the 'Gender roles forum'.

Indigenous agriculture and trade
Until recently, many Europeans thought Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities were hunter-gatherers who never developed farming. We now know that  Indigenous Australians were some of the first people in the world to develop agriculture. They also had extensive trade routes, to transport valued items and produce across the country . You can learn more by watching the next video:

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Historical representations (5 coins)
Answer the following questions on the 'Agriculture and trade forum', after watching the above video:

1. Many Europeans thought of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people as hunter-gatherers. Was this accurate, or not?
2. Why do you think Aboriginal agricultural practices were considered less valuable than European ways of using the land?
3. Can you find an example of how Indigenous Australians traded goods?
4. Why do you think Europeans refused to think of First Nations as innovative farmers and traders?
5. What are the possible consequences of this misrepresentation of history?

Stereotypes (5 coins)
The previous video shows how historical representations can shape our understanding of the past and lead to harmful stereotypes and other misconceptions. The next video breaks down a few more  misconceptions about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people:

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Answer these questions on the 'Stereotypes forum', after watching the video above:

1. What role might the media play in shaping and perpetuating stereotypes?
2. What can you do to avoid stereotyping other people?

The Stolen Generations
From 1860 to 1970, it was official policy to steal Aboriginal children from their parents and place them in religious missions, boarding schools , and adoptive European families. This was a systematic effort to eradicate Aboriginal history, culture, and identity, and to assimilate them into white Australia. It had a profound impact not just on the tens of thousands of people who were taken, but also on their families, communities, and descendants. Like other forms of genocide, it remains in the hearts and minds of the people whose lives it impacted. The next video features an interview with a survivor of the Stolen Generations:

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European motivations
Why did Europeans steal Aboriginal children and raise them in white households? Some missionaries thought they were doing good and that by teaching Aboriginal children English and raising them in white culture, they would have more opportunities to succeed. In reality, the Stolen Generations were cut off from loved-ones, culturally dislocated, and subject to physical and psychological abuse. Many white Australians  found it convenient to control the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders for their own material benefit. Destroying Indigenous communities gave them access to Aboriginal land and a new source of labour to exploit.

Personal experiences
The next video features another account of what it was like to be part of the Stolen Generations:

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Watch the next video to see a young woman outline her grandfather's experience:

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Raised by missionaries (5 coins)
Non-Indigenous Australians can never really understand what it is like to experience this type of violence. With that in mind, try to imagine what it might be like if you were kidnapped as an infant and kept on an island to be raised by missionaries from another religion. How would you feel? How would you feel when you were able to leave the island at 18? What might you do? Type your thoughts into a Word document and save it to the 'Raised by missionaries submission'.

Lifetime influences (5 coins)
In the next video, an Aboriginal woman recalls her own experience as part of the Stolen Generations.

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Sheila's childhood experiences drove her to work in the community sector, helping other children who find themselves being mistreated by the system. She decided that she would be in a better position to change the system by becoming a part of it  rather than fighting it from the outside.

1. Ask some older people in your family to tell you about their childhoods. What are the main events in their lives that have shaped who they are today?
2. With the permission of your interviewees, share one or two of their experiences on the 'Lifetime influences forum'.

Lasting consequences
British people eroded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, stole Indigenous land and water, introduced unfamiliar diseases, and brought alcohol and other drugs to Australia. Aboriginal Australians suffer the consequences of racism to this day, both explicit and implicit. Many of them are still kept from participating fully in mainstream economic and social life. 

Myths and stereotypes
Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people answer anonymous questions in the next video. In doing so,  they debunk some of the myths and stereotypes that persist today about Indigenous Australians.

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Complete at least 20 coins' worth of activities below.

Terra Nullius
Historical events are interpreted differently at different times, by different groups of people. That is to say, different people tell different stories about the past. The British 'First Fleet' landed in Australia in 1788. According to British authorities at the time, Australia was 'Terra Nullius', which means 'nobody's land' in Latin. This allowed the British to say they did not 'invade' Australia, but that they simply occupied empty land. This was the most popular interpretation of Australian history until just a few decades ago. Things began to change in the 90s with the Mabo Case, when the High Court of Australia ruled that Australia was not unoccupied, but rather it was inhabited by its First Nations people. This gave rise to the concept of 'Native Title', which recognises First Nations people as traditional owners of their land. Take a look at this video to learn more about Eddie Mabo and the fight for Indigenous land rights:

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1770

Relations between Indigenous Australians and the British quickly became violent. Take a look at this article to learn more about the encounter between Captain Cook and the Gweagal clan in 1770:

First contact
Many Indigenous Australians were not sure what to make of the British when they first arrived. In the next video, an Indigenous Australian woman explains what it was like to see a white person for the first time:

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1778 and beyond
It wasn't until 1788 that the First Fleet arrived with convicts, soldiers, and settlers at Botany Bay. They found the area unsuitable and moved to Sydney Cove on the 26^th of January. The next video outlines some of the events that occurred at Wadjemup, in Western Australia. Note that this is just one example of the way Australia's First Nations people have been treated since 1788.

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Indigenous perspectives (5 coins)

In many cases, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives have been translated, re-told, or selectively edited by non-Indigenous people. Until recently, written accounts directly produced or published by Indigenous sources have been rarer. How might this shape our perspective of history, and why might it be a problem? What can we do to get a more accurate picture of Australian history? Why might some Indigenous people be reluctant to share their perspective with non-Indigenous people? Share your thoughts on the 'Indigenous perspectives forum'.

Land

Indigenous Nations use features of the natural landscape to identify territory. They also have established customs for seeking to enter the land of other First Nations. The British view land as the property of an individual or the state rather than the community as a whole, giving owners exclusive rights over its use. They claim particular areas and make money by charging people to live on it and farm it. This stands in contrast to the traditional Indigenous approach to land, which is explained in the next video:

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Indigenous cultures today
Take a look at the next video to learn about the continued importance of Indigenous Australian cultures:

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Penal colonies

When the British first came to Australia, they set it up as a penal colony, which is a place to send criminals to serve out their sentences. As such, most of the first British migrants were convicts, soldiers, and jailers. Over time, more free settlers moved to Australia, and many of the convicts remained after their sentences to take opportunities that they wouldn't have had back in Britain.

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Ancestry (5 coins)
Where do your family come from? How far back can you trace your ancestry? If you are non-Indigenous, can you pinpoint the moment when your ancestors arrived in Australia? You can research your ancestry online, and by talking to relatives. Post what you find on the 'Ancestry forum'.

Australian immigration policy
The 'White Australia' policies were a set of laws instituted from 1901 that made it harder for people to immigrate from China and other non-English-speaking countries. The Second World War brought about changes to migration policy, with a wider group of Europeans being encouraged to come to Australia under the slogan 'populate or perish'. Immigration law continued to change in the 1960s, allowing more people to arrive from Asia. We still have tough restrictions on immigration, however. Many people both in Australia and overseas are critical of our treatment of those seeking asylum or refuge from persecution or suffering overseas. Watch the next video for a brief history of immigration in Australia:

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Many Australians believe Australia should place further restrictions on immigration. Take a look at the next video to learn more about the issue:

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Immigration (5 coins)
Why do you think immigration is such a controversial topic in Australia? Share your thoughts on the 'Immigration forum'.

Australia Day

The First Fleet arrived on the 26^th of January, now referred to as 'Australia Day'. Many Australians boycott the celebration each year, arguing that we should not celebrate an event associated with so much suffering. Watch the next video to hear from some Aboriginal Australians on the issue:

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Australia Day (5 coins)
Some people argue that Australia Day should be moved to a different date, to celebrate Australia without overlooking the suffering and loss caused by the arrival of the British. What do you think about this? Share your thoughts on the 'Australia Day forum'.

Activities

Complete at least 20 coins' worth of activities below.

World War I

The Great War
The next video explains how World War I unfolded, from 1914 to 1918:

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The Western Front (5 coins)

The video refers to the terrible conditions in the trenches in France, known as the 'Western Front'.

1. Research the Western Front and put together a collage of images and words describing the experience of troops in the trenches. You can include photos, drawings and other documents. You might also want to include quotes from people who were there.
2. Add your collage to the main page of the 'Western Front Wiki'. You can learn how to edit Wikis here.

Gallipoli
The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed in Egypt in 1914 when Australian troops joined Britain in World War I. Australians from all backgrounds fought in World War I, including Aboriginal Australians and migrants from outside Britain. ANZAC forces fought all across the world during World War I, with soldiers in New Guinea, the Cocos Islands, Egypt, Palestine, Persia, Russia, and western Europe. ANZAC is probably most well-known for fighting the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, where tens of thousands of young men died on the beaches and cliffs of Gallipoli. The next video provides a short explanation of the campaign.

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Many historians argue that the Battle of Gallipoli was a senseless attack, and it would not have occurred the way it did if we had better intelligence and surveillance capabilities. Take a look at the next video to see some rare footage from the battle, in 1915:

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ANZAC Day (5 coins)
ANZACs first landed at Gallipoli on the 25^th of April 1915, which we now call 'ANZAC Day'. Create an artefact to commemorate ANZAC Day. It could be a poem, a drawing, a photograph, a garden - anything that might capture some aspect of the ANZAC experience. When you are done, add your creation to the main page of the 'ANZAC Day Wiki'. You can learn how to edit Wikis here.

Conscription
The United Kingdom introduced conscription in 1916, which forced young men to enlist in the armed forces. Australians voted against conscription in two referendums, choosing to rely on volunteers instead. This video is an advert that would have been screened in cinemas to attract volunteers:

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Propaganda (5 coins)
Communications designed to further a political agenda are known as 'propaganda'. Like the advertisement above, propaganda often tries to persuade people by misleading them or only showing them part of the story. The number of volunteers dropped off significantly as news of the war reached Australia, especially as word spread about the horrors of Gallipoli.

1. Find three examples of propaganda, from any place or time period.
2. Post what you find on the 'Propaganda forum' and explain why you think it's propaganda.

The end of the Great War
So how and why did World War I end? The next video explains events leading to the Armistice that officially marked the end of the war in 1918:

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The role of the US (5 coins)
The US joined World War I several years into the war, in April 1917. This gave the Allied forces a huge boost of troops, military supplies and warships. Research the following questions and share your responses on the 'US in WWI forum', along with a reference for each one:

1. Why did the US join World War I?
2. How might have events panned out if the US did not join the war?
   

World War II

The beginning of the war
The Second World War started when Germany invaded Poland in 1939, prompting Britain and France to declare war with Germany. Adolf Hitler rose to power in the 30s, fuelled by strong national resentment about the way Germany had been treated at the end of World War I. The Treaty of Versailles was especially controversial, requiring Germany and its allies to pay for the enormous loss and damage caused during the First World War. World War II is known for its use of modern weaponry, making it even more lethal than its predecessor. It is also known for the Holocaust, which was a large-scale attempt by the Nazis to eradicate Jewish people and other groups they considered inferior.

World War II research (5 coins)

World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, leading to the loss of between 70 and 85 million lives. It is also enormously complex, involving over 100 million people from more than 30 different countries.

1. Visit the World War II Wikipedia page and choose two topics that interest you.
2. Research your chosen topics and create a page for each one on the 'World War II Wiki'. You can learn how to edit Wikis here.
3. Add a paragraph or two summarising each issue.
4. Add an image to each page, along with links to your sources.
   

Australia under attack
In the first few years of World War II, Australian ships were attacked by Japanese planes and submarines, leading Australia to fear invasion. On the 19^th of February 1942, Japanese planes bombed Darwin. In May 1942, Sydney Harbour was attacked by Japanese midget submarines. Japanese forces also attacked Broome, Horn Island, Exmouth Gulf, and Townsville. Australian authorities did not always make news of these attacks available right away, to help control morale. Watch this video to learn more about the attack on Darwin:

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Darwin was already seen as a potential target, so some of the civilian population were evacuated from the city. Some historians believe the government even developed a proposal to concede everything above the 'Brisbane Line' on the map below if Japan attacked the mainland, although this is controversial:

Evacuation (5 coins)

Children in cities were temporarily sent to live in rural areas, where there was thought to be a lower risk of bombing. Compared to Britain and Europe, there were few evacuations in Australia.

1. Look online for a real story about evacuation during World War 2, in Australia or elsewhere.
2. Summarise the story in one paragraph, in your own words.
3. Add the story to a new page of the 'Evacuation stories Wiki', along with a reference. You can learn how to edit Wikis here.
   

Nuclear warfare
The US dropped a nuclear bomb on Hiroshima on August the 6^th, 1945. They dropped another nuclear bomb on Nagasaki three days later. Japan surrendered six days after that. Take a look at the video below to learn more about what happened in Hiroshima:

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The next video looks at how the attacks were depicted by the US as a legitimate and necessary way to end the war:

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Moral justification (5 coins)
Some historians argue that the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki sped up the end of the war and in doing so, saved more lives than if the war had been allowed to drag on. Others think the bombings were entirely unjustified. What do you think? Would more lives have been lost if the US had not bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki? And if so, does that provide sufficient moral justification for the attack? Research the issue and then share your thoughts on the 'Moral justification forum'.

After World War II

The Korean War

The Korean War started in 1950, partly as a result of how power was divided up after World War II. The next video gives a brief overview of the conflict:

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The 38th parallel (5 coins)
Do you think the Korean War would have ended sooner if US and United Nations troops had stopped when they first reached the 38th parallel? Why did they push on? Do you think this was the right decision, or not? Why? Share your thoughts on the '38th parallel forum'.

The Vietnam War
Australia joined the Vietnam War in the 1960s to support the US in their attempt to stop communism from spreading from North to South Vietnam. The war became incredibly unpopular both in Australia and the US, and troops were finally withdrawn in the 1970s. Take a look at the next video for a brief outline of events:

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Homecoming (5 coins)
The Australian public were mostly against involvement in Vietnam, and so soldiers were not celebrated upon their return like the ANZACs. Read this piece by an Australian veteran, then complete the 'Homecoming template' and upload it to the 'Homecoming submission'.

Wars in the Middle East

Australia participated in the 'War on Terror' started by the US after the terrorist attacks on September the 11^th, 2001. The US invaded Afghanistan in October of that year. Watch this video to learn more:

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The US invaded Iraq in 2003. The next video provides some information about Australia's involvement:

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Activities

Complete at least 20 coins' worth of activities below.

The final section of this course covers significant moments in Australian history, many of which are of particular importance to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

The 1967 Referendum
Over 90% of people voted 'yes' in the 1967 referendum to change the Constitution to formally recognise First Nations people. Until that time, Aboriginal Australians were not counted in the census, and the Australian government was unable to make laws for them. Before the referendum,  laws made in relation to Indigenous Australian people were made by the various colonial (later state and territory) governments. The 1967 Referendum also allowed for Indigenous Australians to be counted in the national census for the first time. You can learn more about it in this video:

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The 1967 referendum was a step forward, but there are still serious issues with inequality. The next video looks at how Australia has failed to address them.

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Outcomes (5 coins)
The 1967 Referendum had both short-term and long-term outcomes. Research the outcomes of the referendum, and then answer the following questions on the 'Referendum outcomes forum':

1. What is one consequence of the 1967 Referendum?
2. Did the referendum make a real difference for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people? Why or why not?

The Mabo Case and the Native Title Act
On the 3^rd of June 1992, Eddie Mabo won a High Court ruling (after more than a decade of legal battles) that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people occupied Australia before the arrival of the British, and could legally be considered owners of their land. This led to the passing of the Native Title Act in 1993, to legislate ways traditional owners could gain recognition and better access to and control over their lands.

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Land ownership (5 coins)
What does it mean to 'own' land? Should people be able to own land, or should they just be able to use it for a set period of time? Should people be able to earn money by renting their land to others? Should people be able to earn money through mining and other ecologically destructive processes? Should unoccupied or unused land be made use of for social causes like housing the homeless? Share your thoughts on the 'Land ownership forum'.

The apology
Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued a formal apology for the Stolen Generations on February the 13^th, 2008. Watch this video for a short extract from the speech:

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This short documentary provides more information about the event:

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Progress (5 coins)
The apology was framed as the first step toward reconciliation, and it highlighted the urgent need to address Indigenous inequality. It has been more than 10 years since then. Research the extent to which inequality has been addressed in that time. Present your findings on the 'Progress forum', along with a suggestion about what else could be done.

The Uluru Statement from the Heart
In May 2017, a council of First Nations leaders met at Uluru for a convention to consider the way Indigenous Australians are represented in the Constitution. They indicated that they want a stronger political voice, and a chance to take responsibility for resolving issues that affect them. Take a look at the video below to learn more about  the process:

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The Uluru Statement from the Heart requested a referendum to alter the Constitution to provide for an advisory board to parliament that would represent the views of First Nations people. The Turnbull government refused this request. Take a look at the video below for a discussion about the issue:

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Indigenous representation (5 coins)
Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull argued that they would not go ahead with the referendum because it would fail. They also argued that the two existing Indigenous members of Parliament provided sufficient Indigenous representation. What do you think of these arguments? Do you think the Australian Government were right to refuse the request? Why or why not? How could Australia ensure the views of First Nations people are genuinely heard and understood? Share your thoughts on the 'Indigenous representation forum'.

Same-sex marriage legislation
The next video features a discussion about same-sex marriage from 2008, several years before it was made legal in Australia:

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Defining marriage (5 coins)
Parts of the above discussion centre around definitions of the word 'marriage'. What does it mean to you, and why? Do you think it's an important concept, or not? Do you hope to get married one day? Share your thoughts on the 'Defining marriage forum'.

Legalisation
The Australian Government relented to public pressure in 2017 and agreed to hold a survey on the issue of same-sex marriage. Surveys are not binding like referendums, but they can influence the way Members of Parliament vote by providing some insight into public opinion. Take a look at the video below for a short news report about the survey:

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Marriage law survey (5 coins)
Why do you think the Government refused to pass the bill to allow same-sex marriage without a public opinion survey? Do you think the bill would have been passed if the public had voted 'no'? Share your thoughts on the 'Survey forum'.

The vote
Parliament voted on the issue of same-sex marriage on the 7^th of December, 2017. Watch the next video to see the moment same-sex marriage was made legal in Australia:

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LGBT+ (5 coins)
Do you think the legalisation of same-sex marriage has had a wider impact on the movement to gain equality and recognition for LGBT+ people in Australia? What progress has been made, and what challenges still need to be overcome? What cultural changes are currently occurring in this area? Share your thoughts and observations on the 'LGBT+ forum'.

Activities

Complete one or both of the activities below.